Essay 8

Throughout European history, racism against Africans was present. Sometimes this racism took on different forms, but the fact remains that it was still at hand. The early twentieth century was no different. During this era in Europe, some black people were treated a bit different. These Africans, known as Francophone Africans, were intellectual and experienced colonial assimilation. “These displaced intellectuals and activists often became disconnected from the living cultures, everyday struggles, and ordinary people in whose name they acted”’ (Wilder, 150).
Aime Cesaire, Leopold Sedar Senghor, and Leon-Gontran Damas were among the African intellectuals that made a name for themselves and for their Africa heritage. Although their childhoods were filled with racism and alienation, they were later considered racially elite in their specific colonies. French education was an important component in their early lives, and continued on to college educations. Senghor believed that, “The best way to prove the value of black culture was to steal the colonizers’ own weapons and be an even better student” (Wilder, 151). Bettering themselves was their way of getting even with the years and years of torment they have had to endure. Damas befriended many white artists and Antillean students who were interested in his origin and culture. In fact, several African-based courses were offered at Universities.
These African intellectuals did alter Western civilization in more ways than one. “The Great War brought thousands of Africans to France as conscripts, and some stayed there” (Miller, 10). According to Miller, 134,000 Africans fought while 30,000 were killed. Miller continues on to tell us another effect of the massive participation of Africans in the war, “la dette de sang, the moral debt that France owed Africans who had lent and sacrificed their lives” (Miller18). Blacks were still seen as a lesser race, and saw European civilization for them as nothing more than a joke. Even still, Miller tells us that 1932 was a crucial year where certain blacks took on “a new type of cultural identity” (Miller, 11).
Black intellectuals attempted to define themselves as Africans through their education, writings, speeches, and teachings. These blacks embraced, rejected, and altered the very Western civilization that was both offered and pushed upon them

Essay 7

“Images of black people in European popular culture at the end of the nineteenth century conformed to the perceptions of those who depicted them” (Archer-Straw, 22). Europeans began to portray Africans in a different light, yet it was not always positive. African culture was negatively depicted throughout European art, and their justification for doing so was largely based on religion. Christian whites believed that dark-skinned races were cursed and deserved to have a life of servitude. Whites saw themselves as enlightened and pure, while they associated blackness with sin and ignorance. Africans were the subordinate race, and even after slavery racism did not come to an end. Paintings depicted blacks as subservient, adoring servants. Because blacks had become threatening to the superior white race, as we learned in past readings, Europeans justified their actions of conquest by creating a non-threatening new depiction of black people.
The interest in Black culture did grow as the degrading portrayal of Africans grew into entertainment for the European theater-goer. Europeans told stories of adventure and danger. Posters showed scenes of Africans with spears and shields, portraying savagery while the white soldiers were victorious civilized gentlemen. Black culture was modern and fast-paced, and Europeans benefited greatly from it. They used black people to sell exotic products to market on their once feared African origin. Africans were transported in to reenact battles and other events. Throughout European culture, blacks were continuously portrayed as the inferior, submissive race. Along with economic and entertainment gains, Europeans also used black culture to indulge in certain fantasies. Boxing became quite popular in both black and white societies, and was a great way for both races to relive their aggressions. Many white Europeans began visiting all black establishments, and were encouraged to dance, sing, and sexually interact with blacks. Behind those doors races did not matter; all were welcome.
Although black culture was part of the new culture that Europe had created, the black race was still seen as different from them. Skin color was still the determining factor of superiority to whites. Black culture was used to justify past actions, and benefited the European in many ways.

Essay 6

It appears that from this week’s readings, Europeans seem to have had mixed opinions of Africans during the twentieth century. For example, in Tina Campt’s “Other Germans”, the French enlisted African soldiers seemingly to spite the Germans they were fighting. “As both Nelson and Pascal Grosse contend, another motivation for using Black troops in the occupation was France’s belief in the strategic psychological effect of these troops on their military adversaries” (Campt, 32). She continues on, describing the black troops as “subtle psychological warfare against the Germans” (ibid). Many of the French black soldiers fathered mixed-blood children, and those children were looked down upon. This was not just in Europe, however. Racially mixed children in Germany were also viewed in a negative manner. Germany put bans on mixed marriages, and the children of such unions were not considered Germans, they were considered natives.
Europeans during this century had several reasons for their actions. They saw themselves as civilized and pure, while many viewed Africans as uncivilized and barbaric. Any such union in their eyes was considered pollution to the white race, and threatened the balance of power. “The prospect of a racially mixed, Black German minority with equal status to a white, ‘racially pure’ German populace was certainly a cause for concern that motivated this change in colonial policy and culminated the Reichstag debates of 1912” (Campt, 45). Native women and their mixed-blood offspring and their children became German citizens. Male children would be subject to military service, able to hold public office, and given the right to vote.
As I mentioned earlier, I feel that views of European blacks seem extremely mixed. Our readings are based on French and Germans that opposed unions between colonists and natives. Bans were issued, laws were set. Phrases such as, “racial pollution”, “impaired civilization”, and “endangered power” are thrown around these articles. On the other hand, many Europeans married, or at least had children with these black soldiers. This had to have occurred quite often if it created such a problem for the rest of the continent. Also, laws were issued against the unions, yet the children of mixed-marriages became European citizens and were given certain rights. Many Europeans feared the threat of integration with Africans. There were, however, just as many were starting families with them.

Essay 5

The motivation behind the European conquest of African land was largely economical. Based on this week’s readings on European imperialism, I feel that Rodney’s explanation on the subject, which was planned and determined, is more likely the truth than the spontaneous argument that Robinson and Gallagher provide.
“Imperialism was not so popular in Europe that tax-payers, who were also voters, were ready to pay its bills” (Roberts, 26). European trade in Africa was dropping drastically by the time the 20th century arrose. During the war, it was obvious how dependent African imports Europe came to be. The nation saw conquest as a necessity for their economic survival. Whites did first plan to settle in certain areas throughout Africa, yet opposition in Africa made them change their plans.
In his essay, McKenzie asks the important question, “Why that, after several centuries of nibbling at the edges of Africa, Europeans suddenly rushed in to establish direct military and political control over almost the entire continent?” (McKenzie, p 11). As the writer continues to educate the reader that there is no answer, at least not a simple one, to this question. J.M. does, however, agree that the resources in Africa were an extremely important part of economic status during this time. “Africa was beginning to be important for the commodities it could supply directly to Europe” (McKenzie, p 13). European exploration had started, and it was a nation-wide struggle for power and possession.
Europe wished to restrict the participation that Africans could have. Germany, for example, may have believed in Africans having an education, yet the topic of citizenship and the right to vote was never brought up. Middle class blacks were eventually granted certain rights through European eyes, yet the policy still remained that civilization was the deciding issue of political rights, not race. All three essays use such terms as “Parliamentary approval”, “budgets”, “economic strategies”, and “grants in aid” throughout them.